Lesson 9 Forage Production
Part A Forage Establishment
Field selection
Suitable forage species are available for all types of Manitoba soils and moisture conditions. Use Table 9-1 and Table 9-2 as a guide for selecting hay and pasture forages for different soil conditions.
Perennial weeds are difficult to control in seedling forages, and should be controlled before establishment. If conventional tillage practices are being used, prepare a fine, firm, shallow seed bed. Increasingly, forage growers are successfully establishing forage stands without tillage. Benefits of zero-tillage forage establishment are:1 lower costs and less labour; 2 better seed bed moisture conservation; 3 standing 'dead mulch' protects an emerging crop from drying-out and sandblasting.
合适的牧草品种可用于马尼托巴湖所有类型的土壤和水分条件。使用表9-1和9-2 作为选作物不同土壤条件的干草和牧场牧草的指南。
牧草幼苗期的多年生杂草很难控制，应当在建立前控制，如果使用常规实践，准备一个精细，坚定，浅的种床 ，逐渐的 ，牧草种植者成功的建立了无耕作的饲料站。零耕作牧草建立的利益是1.降低成本和低的劳动力2.更好地保持种床水分，3.长期有效的死物质覆盖保护作物免受干旱胁迫和风沙的危害。
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Seeding
Inoculation
Treating legume seeds with an appropriate inoculant ensures good nitrogen(N) fixation,and should be carried out before seeding. Inoculant contains living rhizobium bacteria, and must be handled carefully to ensure viability. Keep inoculant in the sealed original container, store in a refrigerator until required and do not expose to direct sunlight. Plant immediately after inoculation. If seeding is interrupted, store seed in a cool, dark place and resume seeding when possible.
Pre-inoculated seed is also available. Store seed in a cool, dark place to keep the inoculant viable. Each legume or group of legumes requires a specific species of rhizobium bacteria for N fixation. Ensure that the inoculant you buy is appropriate for the crop being seeded.
Alfalfa Group -alfalfa and sweet clover
Clover Group -for red clover, white clover and alsike clover
Bird's-foot -bird's-foot trefoil only
Sainfoin -Sainfoin only
用一个合适的接种菌处理豆科种子确保好的固氮，并应该在播种前实现。接种菌包括活的根瘤菌，并且必须仔细操作以确保生存。把接种菌保持在一个密封的原容器中，储存
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在冰箱中直到需要并且不要直接暴露在太阳光下。接种后立即种植。如果中断播种，种子储藏在冷的黑暗的地方，能够恢复播种。
预先接种也是有效的，种子保存在冷的，黑暗的地方能保持接种细菌的生存。每一个豆类或者豆科牧草都需要一个特定的固氮根瘤菌种，确保购买的接种菌适合于已经播种的作物。
紫花苜蓿组——紫花苜蓿，草木犀
三叶草组——红三叶，白三叶，杂三叶
豆科牧草——车轴草
红豆草——只有红豆草
Seed coating
Grasses, which are very light in weight, are difficult to seed. To improve the seed flow characteristics, these seeds are frequently encased within a coating of heavier material. This material is usually an inert substance, such as clay, mixed with some fertilizer to promote rapid establishment of the stand. When using coated seed, it is important to adjust the seeding rate to account for the coating.
禾本科牧草，种子的重量很轻，很难繁殖。改良种子流动特性，这些种子经常被包裹
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在一层较重的材料里。这种材料通常是惰性物质，如粘土，夹杂着一些肥料促进迅速建立该站。当使用包衣种子，重要的是考虑到调节包衣种子的播种量。
Time of seeding
The best time to seed forages is in the early spring, as soon as field conditions permit. The cool, moist conditions of early spring are most favorable for the germination and growth of both grasses and legumes. The moist conditions also allow for a shallow seeding depth, which is very important for quick establishment of the forage crop. If there is adequate moisture, forages can be seeded from late July to mid-August. During this period, only grasses should be seeded. The legumes require a longer growing period to ensure winter survival.
Dormant fall seeding can be attempted when the soil temperatures approach the freezing point and germination is unlikely. The seed germinates in the spring when the growing conditions will be close to ideal, however, an early snowfall can raise the soil temperature sufficiently to cause the seed to germinate in the fall and die over winter. Use dormant seeding in problem areas
That are not suitable for seeding in the spring and summer.
种牧草的最佳时间是在早春，实地条件允许的情况下尽快播种。初春的凉爽，潮湿的环境最有利于禾本科和豆科植物的发芽和生长。在潮湿的环境下也允许播种深度浅，这是非常重要的对于饲料作物的快速建立。如果有足够的水分，牧草播种，从七月下旬到八月中旬。在此期间，只有禾本科草可能会结实种子。豆类需要较长的生长周期，以确保越冬。
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休眠秋季播种，，可以尝试，当土壤温度接近冰点，发芽的可能性不大。种子在春天发芽，生长条件接近理想，但是，及早的降雪可提高土壤温度足以使种子在秋季发芽和越冬死亡。使用休眠直播的问题领域这是不适合在春季和夏季播种
Seeding equipment
Disc drills will work well, provided the seed is not placed too deep. Use depth-control bands mounted on discs, or release down-pressure from discs to let them float on a soil surface. Another option is to remove downspouts and drop seed in front of discs or hoes, allowing soil thrown up by the openers to cover the seed. Alternatively, seed tubes can be moved back to drop seed behind the openers, in front of the press wheels. Broadcast seeding is satisfactory when seed is spread uniformly and packed properly. Spinner spreaders do not spread seed uniformly, especially when a seed mixture is used. Drum seeders work well where stones are a problem. Forage seed is metered from a seed box in front of a large roller, which when weighted with water will pack down stones and firm the seed bed.
与传统耕作技术相比，保护性耕作技术具有显著的经济、社会和生态效益。论文在全面分析保护性耕作关键机具——免耕播种机研究现状的基础上，抓住影响免耕播种机作业质量和生产效率的两个关键部件——防堵装置和排种器，进行了深入的理论分析与系统的试验研究，并取得重要的研究进展。主要研究成果包括： 1．首次设计了免耕播种机锯切防堵装置。论文采用理论分析、试验研究和应用虚拟仪器与高速摄影测试技术相结合的方法，对锯切防堵装置及其切割、防堵机理和参数优化进行了系统的理论分析和土槽试验研究。锯切防堵装置采用锯齿圆盘切刀逆转式作业，一方面依靠锯齿圆盘切刀切断秸秆并利
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用刀齿前角抛送秸秆，另一方面对落入锯齿间的断秆，借助抛撒板旋转作用定向抛送到开沟器后方，实现了切割、定向抛撒一体化功能。大量试验表明：锯切防堵装置具有嵌住茎秆能力强、切割相对连续、切断率高达97％、转速低(650r／min)、功率消耗小(单位幅宽功率消耗2.95kw／m)，抛撒性能好，且对秸秆覆盖量适应性强等优点。理论分析和试验结果表明，该装置设计新颖，具有良好的切割与防堵性能，用于免耕播种机防堵装置是可行的。此研究是免耕播种机防堵装置设计中的一个创新，有望解决目前主动式防堵装置功率消耗大以及转速高而引起的安全性、平稳性和耐用性等问题。发表论文2篇。 2．首次理论上系统建立了玉米水平圆盘精密排种器动盘参数(D、h、N、S_i、v_r)设计的数学模型，解决了长期以来对水平圆盘精密排种器型孔参数设计建立在经验基础上，缺乏一定理论依据的现实问题。实证表明：该优化数学模型用于动盘参数的设计是有效的、合理的。可根据目前我国玉米种子分类标准即大圆、小圆、大扁和小扁分别设计四种排种器动盘，简化设计过程，提高设计参数的可信性和可靠度。发表论文1篇。 3．设计了新型滚珠式推刮种器。滚珠式推种器工作时种子仅受弹簧弹力Q和滚珠重力G共同作用，其合力方向与种子运动方向垂直向下，类似重力投种，且滚珠与型孔呈包容性接触，种子被推出型孔时消去了时间的超前或滞后现象。试验表明排种动盘转速在20r／min以下时，使用滚珠式推刮种器的种子粒距分布频数集中在0.8-1.2，种子破碎率低于1.5％，能有效提高排种性能和播种精度，降低种子破碎率。发表论文1篇。 4．系统的试验研究了排种器种子破碎机理和影响排种性能与播种精度指标的要素，并利用高速摄影技术对排种过程和种子破碎过程进行了观察，对排种质量取得了新的认识。种子破碎主要是剪切、挤压、碰撞和研磨等作用力而引起，种子破碎的形态主要为碎化、剪切及裂纹。
If seed box agitation is not available, many forage grasses will bridge over seed cups, causing skips. To reduce bridging, do not fill seed box above half full. Alternatively, mix seed with cracked wheat( one part cracked wheat; two parts grass seed ). Some growers are successfully using phosphate fertilizer as a carrier.
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If this is done, ensure that seeding takes place immediately after mixing with the fertilizer. Where drills or airflow devices have a countershaft over the seed cups, placing pipe clamps on the countershaft will improve seed flow. Pack the seed bed after seeding, especially when broadcast seeding, to ensure good seed-to-soil contact,and to bring moisture to soil surface. Use a harrow packer, harrow or roller.
盘式钻头将工作做好，只要提供种子不放的太深。使用安装在磁盘上的深度控制带，或从光盘中释放下压力，让他们漂浮在土壤表面。另一种选择是去掉落水管和在光盘或锄头前下降的种子，使土壤抛出的开盖种。另外，种子管可以搬回滴种子背后的开放，在前面的压轮。直播是令人满意的种子均匀扩散和妥善包装。微调散热器不传播种子均匀，尤其是当种子混合使用。滚筒播种机的工作以及在石头是一个问题。牧草种子是从计量种子箱前面的大滚筒，其中加权时水会包下来的石头和坚定的种子床。
如果种子箱搅拌不可用，许多牧草种子杯将堵塞，导致遗漏。降低架桥，不要填写种子箱以上半满。另外，混合种子与小麦（一部分小麦；部分草种子）。一些种植者成功使用磷酸盐肥料为载体。如果这样做，确保播种后立即发生混合肥料。在演习或气流的设备有一个副轴在种子杯，置管夹在副轴会提高种子流。包装种子床播种后，尤其是当直播，确保良好的seed-to-soil接触，并使土壤表面水分。用耙，耙或辊。
Seeding depth and rates
Seed shallow(1/4 to 1 inch ) into a firm seed bed. Seed at 1/4 inch for small-seeded forages, such as timothy, on heavy soils. Seed deeper for large-seeded forages,such as intermediate wheatgrass or alfalfa, on lighter soils. Refer to Table 9-1 and Table 9-2 for hay and pasture seeding mixes. Refer to Table
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9-1 for seeding rates for detailed instructions on seeder calibration.
播种深度和速度
种子浅（1 / 4至1英寸）成一个结实的种子床。种子在1 / 4英寸的小种子植物，如提摩太，重土壤。种子深的大饲料，如中间冰草或苜蓿对土壤，打火机。参考表1和表9 - 2为干草和牧草播种和。参考表9 - 1播种率详细说明播种机校准。
Companion crops
Cover crops compete severely with the forage crop for light, moisture and nutrients, reducing winter survival and yield the following year. However, they are often used to reduce weed competition, sandblasting and desiccation. If they are used, reduce seeding rate and nitrogen rates by half, and harvest as green feed if possible to reduce competition.
Fertilizer
For specific recommendations, have your soil tested. Sample soil at 0-6 inches and 6-24 inch depths before establishment or on established stands. Sampling to 0-6 is useful only on established stands where sulphur levels are known to be sufficient. When establishing forages, phosphorus fertilizer is applied most effectively by banding one inch to the side and one inch below the seed. If phosphorus cannot be banded, incorporate it and all other fertilizer into the soil before seeding.
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Annual broadcast applications of phosphorus, potassium and sulphur fertilizer on established grass crops may be made in late fall or early spring. Do not apply fertilizer to frozen soils subject to water runoff. Rate of nitrogen fertilization can be based on soil test levels or value of the crop and cost of fertilizer.
Ammonium nitrate is generally 10-15% more efficient than urea in increasing the yield of the first cut of grasses. Manitoba studies have found that under conditions of minimal volatilization loss, urea forms are equal to or superior to ammonium nitrate for fertilizing late season grasses in multiple harvest systems and grass pasture. In these instances, hay or pasture grasses are fertilized with ammonium nitrate. Volatilization losses of surface applied N may be very high if rainfall is not received soon after application. Volatilization losses are greatest when urea is applied to a moist thatch cover, followed by warm, windy weather.
Performances of N solutions are improved by surface band or dribble application. Treating urea with an urease inhibitor will delay volatilization losses for up to 14 days. Broadcast N solutions are not satisfactory for established forages. To increase efficiency of nitrogen application with N solutions, they should be surface or dribble banded or injected into the soil with equipment such as a spoke wheel applicator.
The micronutrient boron is particularly important for alfalfa. Visual deficiencies appear as yellowing to reddening of the youngest upper leaves on the plant Deficiencies are generally limited to high pH, sandy soils when plants are under drought stress. Since deficiencies are ofter weather-related, they may be
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observed one year and not the next. Confirm deft-ciencies with soil and plant-tissue analysis. Where boron-deficiency is confirmed, broadcast apply 1-2 1b boron/acre. Apply with caution, since excessive boron can cause toxicity in following crops such as oats and beans.
Diseases
Leaf diseases are the most commonly encountered and obvious disease problem with the forage grasses.If the incidence of leaf disease becomes severe, rotate the field to other crops for several years. Ergot can be a serious problem on bromegrass and wheat grasses. Mowing the grass at heading time will prevent the formation of ergot bodies in the developing florets. This also stops the spread to nearby fields of rye, triticale, wheat or barley. After breaking up a seed field where ergot has been a problem, avoid rye, triticale, wheat or barley for one year.
Forage legumes are susceptible to a number of leaf spot diseases. They are also affected by root and crown rots, which may be associated with winter injury. Foliage diseases overwinter on infected stubble and may build up to become a severe problem. Cut before leaf drop to minimize leaf loss and reduce the amount of overwintering disease. Take severely infected fields out of production. Early-spring burning before new growth may also reduce leaf and stem diseases. Rotate with cereals or corn for at least one year before replanting to a forage legume.
Alfalfa and sweet clover are susceptible to verticillium wilt. Avoid potatoes
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and sunflowers in the rotation because of common susceptibility to verticillium wilt. For more information, consult Manitoba Agriculture and Food Field Scouting Guide and the current to Crop Protection.
Harvesting and storage of quality hay and silage
High-quality forage is the key to reducing feed coasts. This is done by harvesting and storing a high-yielding, good-quality crop of forage. When a crop such as alfalfa is cut just before flowering and harvested quickly under good weather conditions, protein and energy levels above 15 and 65 per cant are possible. Late harvesting decreases the crude protein content, dry matter digestibility and dry matter and forage.
One of the most important factors affecting forage quality is the state of maturity at cutting. Young, vegetative forage is higher in protein and energy than older, flowering material.
Quality of first-cut alfalfa drops especially quickly. Producers aiming for a very high-quality forage( for example for dairy cows or cash hay sales ) should consider cutting as early as June 10-15.
优质牧草是减少饲料海岸的关键。这是通过收获和存储一种高产、 优质的饲料作物。良好的天气条件下时，当作物如苜蓿只在开花之前收割并快速收获，蛋白质和能量水平超过 15%- 65%是可能的。晚收获减少牧草的粗蛋白质含量、 干物质消化率和干物质。
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影响牧草质量的最重要因素之一是在收割时牧草的成熟状态。嫩的、由生长力的牧草比老的开花材料有更高的蛋白质和能量
质量的第一次切苜蓿滴眼液特别快。瞄准非常高质量饲料生产者 （例如对于奶牛或现金干草销售） 应考虑切割早期作为 6 月 10-15。
Relative Feed Value (RFV) is an indicator of forage quality, based on a combination of acid detergent fibre (ADF) and neutral detergent fibre (NDF). For high-quality hay to be fed dairy cows or sold in the cash hay market, a RFV of 150 is considered ideal. The feeding value of leaves is considerably higher than that of stems. Loss of leaves in handling decreases feed value. Leaf losses are likely to occur when legumes are cut and raked for hay, but can be minimized by harvesting with a mower conditioner.
相对饲料价值 （RFV） 是基于酸性洗涤纤维 (ADF) 和中性洗涤纤维 (NDF) 的组合的牧草质量的一个指标。优质干草要喂养奶牛或现金干草市场出售，150 的 RFV 认为是理想的。叶子的喂养值明显高于茎。叶片的处理损失减少饲料价值。叶损失有可能发生在豆科植物被收割和晾晒成干草时，但可以由收获割草机调节剂使损失最小化。
Large losses in feeding value may result when hay is exposed to weather. Rapid-curing, collection and proper storage of forage reduces these losses. Table 9-3 summarizes the types and magnitude of losses that may be expected under good management and harvesting conditions. Much higher losses are possible with all systems under fair or poor conditions. These figures are valid only if proper care and management are provided to all harvesting and storage operations.
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当甘草暴露在空气中可能导致喂养价值大大的减少，快速固化，收集和适当贮存牧草减少这些损失。表 9-3 总结了的在良好的管理和收割条件下损失类型和严重程度可能被预料。在正常的或者贫乏的条件下的所有体系更高的损失是合理地。这些数字仅仅在收获和存储的所有操作都提供适当的照料和管理的情况下才有效。
Harvesting silage in round bales can be an economical means of reducing losses when faced with uncertain weather. Benefits include being able to use existing round-bale equipment, and lower field and feeding losses than with dry hay. Because stands with a high sugar content ensile well, best results are usually found with mixed alfalfa-grass stands cut at an early growth stage. Stands receiving rain in the swath should not be harvested as round-bale silage, because the bacteria needed for ensiling cannot compete with soil bacteria splashed onto the forage by rain. Before baling, ensure that bale handling equipment can handle the heavier bales, which can stack in a day. Bale at 40-60 per cent moisture. In most cases, this is achieved by baling the day after cutting. Baling too wet results in butyric acid (sour silage) production and increased freezing of the bales, and baling too dry results in greater quantities of air in the bale and mouldy silage. Seal bales in plastic as soon as possible, and always the same day. Storage options include using sheet plastic over a pyramid stack, single-row tube, and tube wrapping or individual bale wrap. Monitor silage wrap for holes and tape holes shut with duct or construction tape.
( Cited from Manitoba Agriculture and Food, Canada )
收获的青贮饲料打成圆捆是一种减少损失的经济的方法当面对不确定的天气时。收益
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包括尽可能使用现有的圆捆设备和较低的领域与喂养损失比起干草，因为青贮饲料中糖含量很高，混合苜蓿草地在生长阶段前收割能够产生好的结果。站接收雨地带不应该收获成圆捆的青贮饲料。因为青贮饲料需要的细菌无法与通过雨水被溅到草料上的土壤细菌竞争,在打包之前，确保打包操作设备能够处理成更重的大包，可以在一天堆积起来。打包在40—60%的水分，在大部分情况下， 收割的第二天通过打包来实现这个。捆太湿导致丁酸生成 和增强捆结冰，同时捆太干导致大量的空气进入捆和产生霉味。用塑料袋密封的捆尽快的和常常也是同一天。储存选项包括在锥形的垛上覆盖塑料，单排管、 塑料布和管包装用或个别包换行。监视孔和关闭与风管或施工磁带的磁带孔青贮换行。
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